Monthly Archives: December 2020

Hawker Tornado Fighter

By William Pearce

In early 1937, Hawker Aircraft Limited and the company’s chief designer, Sydney Camm, began to consider the next generation of fighter aircraft for the Royal Air Force. The British Air Ministry was also considering the future of fighter airframes as well as the incorporation of powerful, new engines under development—specifically the Napier Sabre H-24, the Rolls-Royce Vulture X-24, and the Bristol Centaurus 18-cylinder radial.

The first Hawker Tornado prototype P5219 in its original form with the belly radiator. The Vulture’s two rows of exhaust stacks are evident. The aircraft’s resemblance to the Hurricane is apparent.

In July 1937, Hawker proposed two Camm-designed aircraft—the N-type and the R-type, named for their respective Napier and Rolls-Royce powerplants. The Air Ministry told Hawker to wait until an official request was issued, which came in March 1938 in the form of Specification F.18/37 seeking a fighter capable of 400 mph (644 km/h) at 20,000 ft (6,096 m). Hawker was notified in August 1938 that they had won the design contest for Specification F.18/37, and two prototypes of each N-type and R-type were ordered. However, an official contract was not issued until December 1938. The N-type went on to become the Sabre-powered Hawker Typhoon, while the R-type became the Vulture-powered Hawker Tornado. The two Tornado prototypes were assigned serial numbers P5219 and P5224.

The Tornado was a single-engine fighter of all-metal construction with a conventional taildragger layout. The aircraft somewhat resembled an enlarged Hawker Hurricane. From the engine to just behind the cockpit, the fuselage consisted of a tubular frame covered with aluminum panels. The rear fuselage and tail were of monocoque construction. The pilot sat in an enclosed cockpit that was accessible via side entry doors. A fairing extended behind the cockpit and limited the pilot’s rearward vision.

The Tornado’s wing was mounted to the tubular frame of the center fuselage. Because of the Vulture’s installation, the wing was mounted to the fuselage about 3 in (76 mm) lower than on the Typhoon. The wing had two main spars and consisted of an inner and outer section. The inner section had a 1.0-degree anhedral and housed the inward-retracting main landing gear. The landing gear had a wide track of 13 ft 8 in (4.17 m). A 48 US gal (40 Imp gal / 182 L) fuel tank was located in each wing between the main gear leg well and the rear spar, and a 42 US gal (35 Imp gal / 159 L) fuel tank was located in the leading edge of each inner wing section. The Tornado’s total fuel capacity was 180 US gal (150 Imp gal / 682 L). Each outer wing section had a 5.5-degree dihedral and housed six Browning .303 machine guns with 500 rpg. The thick wing was originally designed for the possible installation of six 20 mm cannons, but this configuration was never tried. Each wing had a two-section, hydraulically actuated split flap and featured a large aileron. Except for the fabric-covered rudder, all control surfaces were covered with metal.

Another shot of the newly completed P5219 displays the aircraft’s original short tail. Note the opaque fairing behind the cockpit that blocked the pilot’s vision.

The Tornado’s Rolls-Royce Vulture II engine had 24 cylinders arranged in an X configuration. The engine was mounted to the forward part of the tubular fuselage frame and produced 1,760 hp (1,312 kW). Two rows of exhaust stacks protruded from each side of the engine’s cowling. A belly scoop between the main gear wells housed the engine’s coolant radiator and oil cooler. A door in the aft section of the scoop regulated temperatures. Two intakes between the belly scoop and the underside of the fuselage fed air to the engine’s carburetor. The engine turned a three-blade, constant-speed Rotol propeller that was 14 ft (4.27 m) in diameter.

The Hawker Tornado had a wingspan of 41 ft 11 in (12.78 m), a length of 32 ft 10 in (10.01 m), and a height of 14 ft 8 in (4.47 m). The aircraft had a top speed of 398 mph (641 km/h) at 23,000 ft (7,010 m) and stalling speeds of 82 mph (132 km/h) clean and 61 mph (98 km/h) with flaps and gear extended. The Tornado had an empty weight of 8,377 lb (3,800 kg) and a loaded weight of 10,668 lb (4,839 kg). The aircraft’s initial rate of climb was around 3,500 fpm (17.8 m/s), and its ceiling was 34,900 ft (10,638 m).

The second Tornado prototype P5224 with the chin radiator and windows behind the pilot to help improve vision. The aircraft now resembles a Typhoon, with which it shared many components.

The Tornado prototype P5219 was built at the experimental shop in Hawker’s Canbury Park Road facility in Kingston, but it was sent to Hawker’s new facility in Langley for final assembly in July 1939. The Vulture II engine was delivered in September 1939, and ground tests were started later that month. Piloted by Philip Lucas, P5219 made its first flight on 6 October 1939. During the preliminary flight tests in October and November, the aircraft achieved a speed of 370 mph (595 km/h) at 15,000 ft (4,572 m). However, the Tornado’s tail was lacking in surface area, and the rudder did not have sufficient authority to hold a straight course during takeoff and proved ineffective at speeds under 150 mph (241 km/h). Engine cooling was a constant issue, especially during ground operations. While in flight at higher speeds, turbulence from the wings disrupted airflow into the radiator, which impaired engine cooling. A new radiator was designed that would relocate the cooling system from its ventral position to a chin location under the engine. Metal was also found in the engine oil, indicating a possible issue with the Vulture’s bearings.

While the Vulture engine was undergoing maintenance, the Tornado airframe was modified with the new chin radiator and oil cooler, which shifted the aircraft’s appearance away from that of the Hurricane. In November 1939, an order for Hawker to produce 1,000 Tornados was placed. The contract was later changed to Typhoons, but then amended for 800 Typhoons and 200 Tornados, with the Tornados to be built by Avro due to Hawker’s production commitments of other aircraft, namely the Hurricane. Other Tornado production contracts were later issued, including 200 aircraft to be built by Cuncliffe-Owen and another 760 aircraft to be built by Avro. The revised Tornado took to the air on 6 December 1939, but Lucas reported that the aircraft was even more directionally unstable with the chin radiator. Performance tests in March 1940 indicated a top speed of 384 mph (618 km/h) at 20,500 ft (6,248 m), but the engine was not making full power. Various modifications were made to improve the aircraft’s stability. The exit of the radiator was extended 3 in (76 mm); the vertical stabilizer and rudder were enlarged in May 1940; and tailwheel doors were added in June 1940.

P5224 in flight displaying the aircraft’s aggressive appearance and enlarged tail. Note the carburetor intake atop the engine cowling.

With stability improved, P5219 was sent to Rolls-Royce’s flight-testing facility at Hucknall to improve the engine’s performance. The aircraft was returned to Langley in mid-July 1940 with a new engine and a new Rotol propeller that was 13 ft 2.5 in (4.02 m) in diameter. Performance flight testing continued, and on 27 July, the Tornado climbed to 20,000 ft (6,096 m) in 6 minutes and 36 seconds and achieved a speed of 396.5 mph (638.1 km/h) at 20,800 ft (6,340 m). On 31 July, the Vulture engine failed in flight, and the aircraft was damaged in the subsequent forced landing.

While P5219 was being repaired, the second Tornado prototype, P5224, was flown on 7 December 1940. Construction of the second prototype was delayed by other priority war work. P5224 was built from the start with the chin radiator and an enlarged tail. The aircraft also had the carburetor intake atop the engine cowling, inner gear doors to completely enclose the main gear, and side windows behind the cockpit to improve the pilot’s vision (which was still restricted). However, engine cooling was still an issue, as were excessive vibrations with the Vulture engine.

The repaired P5219 returned to active flight testing with a 1,980 hp (1,476 kW) Vulture V engine installed by March 1941, but the future of the Vulture engine was in doubt. P5224 suffered an engine failure on 21 March 1941, and its Vulture II was subsequently replaced by a Vulture V. P5224 first flew with the Vulture V on 11 June 1941. Around June 1941, Avro was instructed to halt work on producing the Tornado fighter, and the Tornado contracts were cancelled. The Vulture engine was stalled by Rolls-Royce so they could focus on the Merlin, and the Vulture was officially cancelled in October 1941. The Sabre-powered Typhoon fighter would be produced and take over resources previously allocated to the Tornado.

The first and only production Tornado, R7936, was used as a propeller testbed after its initial flight testing. The aircraft is seen here with Rotol contra-rotating propellers, which had a smaller diameter than the standard, single-rotation propellers used on the Tornado and Typhoon. Note that the aircraft did not have the windows behind the pilot like the second prototype.

P5219 continued flight testing with Hawker until at least April 1943, and the aircraft was scrapped in August 1943. P5224 was tested by the Aeroplane & Armament Experimental Establishment at Boscombe Down starting in October 1941. The aircraft was then delivered to the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough in December 1941. P5224 was scrapped in late 1944.

After the Tornado contracts were cancelled, construction of the first production Tornado, serial number R7936, was allowed to continue as well as components for two other examples that were nearing completion. R7936 was powered by a Vulture V engine and made its first flight on 29 August 1941, piloted by Lucas. In general, pilots that flew R7936 were impressed by its handling and performance. The aircraft recorded a speed of 402 mph (647 km) at 21,800 ft (6,645 m) and climbed to 20,000 ft (6,096 m) in 6 minutes and 54 seconds. With the Tornado program dead, R7936 was used as a testbed for Rotol and de Havilland contra-rotating propellers. Little information has been found on these tests, but the aircraft was delivered to Rolls-Royce in March 1942 for the installation of a Vulture engine with a contra-rotating gear reduction. The six-blade Rotol contra-rotating propeller was 11 ft 3 in (3.43 m) in diameter, and the aircraft was first flown with the unit on 11 August 1942. The de Havilland contra-rotating propellers were installed as early as December 1942. It appears R7936 continued with propeller tests until April 1944, when it was scrapped.

Typhoon HG641 was built to serve as a testbed for the Bristol Centaurus engine. Seen here with its original three-blade propeller, cowling, and single large exhaust manifold. The silhouette of the oil cooler can just be seen between the main landing gear.

From the first discussion with the Air Ministry before Specification F.18/37 was issued, Camm and Hawker had given some consideration to a Centaurus-powered Tornado, but little progress was undertaken beyond the preliminary design. With the Vulture and Sabre engines running into development issues by late 1940, more-serious consideration was given to installing a 2,210 hp (1,678 kW) Centaurus engine in a Tornado airframe. In September 1940, Hawker was given permission to proceed with the Centaurus-powered Tornado prototype, but the official contract was not issued until February 1941. Some work was also done on using a Wright R-3350 engine, but this design was dropped in June 1941.

The Centaurus Tornado was assigned serial number HG641. The aircraft was built by Hawker at Langley using components from uncompleted Tornado production airframes and a new center fuselage. The Centaurus engine turned a 12 ft 9 in (3.89 m) diameter, three-blade, Rotol propeller and was covered by a conventional cowling. Exhaust from the engine was expelled via a single manifold protruding from the cowling under the left side of the engine. An oil cooler was mounted between the wells for the main landing gear. The air-cooled radial reduced the aircraft’s weight by about 350 lb (159 kg). Lucas took the Centaurus Tornado up for its first flight on 23 October 1941.

HG641 with the new four-blade propeller and revised cowling. The oil cooler was located in the large duct under the engine.

Initial flight tests of HG641 indicated that airflow through the oil cooler was not efficient and led to the engine running near its upper temperature limit. Even so, a speed of 378 mph (608 km/h) was recorded at 20,000 ft (6,096 m). The oil cooler was modified, and testing continued until December 1941. At that time, the aircraft was modified to improve the installation of the engine package, including exhaust and oil cooler. The cowling was revised, and a new oil cooler duct was faired into the lower cowling. Two exhaust stacks were incorporated into the left and right sides of the fairing. A four-blade propeller, also 12 ft 9 in (3.89 m) diameter, was installed, and the modified Centaurus Tornado took its first flight on 23 December 1942, piloted by Lucas. Cooling was improved, and the aircraft achieved 403 mph (649 km/h) at 22,000 ft (6,706 m) and had a ceiling of 32,800 ft (9,997 m). In February 1943, the aircraft was transferred to Bristol’s facility in Filton, where a speed of 412 mph (663 km/h) at 18,000 ft (5,486 m) was reportedly recorded. The Centaurus Tornado continued engine testing until August 1944, when the aircraft was scrapped.

The testing of Tornado aircraft provided information for developing the Typhoon fighter, contra-rotating propellers, and the Bristol Centaurus engine, which was particularly helpful when applied to the Centaurus-powered Hawker Tempest II fighter. Although the Tornado has been mostly forgotten, both the Typhoon and the Tempest served with distinction during World War II.

Side view of HG641 with the new cowling. The aircraft did not have the windows behind the pilot and used hinged doors on the landing gear to completely conceal the main wheels. This was also tried on the prototypes before switching to a separate inner door.

Sources:
– The Hawker Typhoon and Tempest by Francis K. Mason (1988)
– Hawker Typhoon, Tempest and Sea Fury by Kev Darling (2003)
– British Experimental Combat Aircraft of World War II by Tony Buttler (2012)
– Fighters Volume Two by William Green (1964)
– Hawker Typhoon and Tempest: A Formidable Pair by Philip Birtles (2018)
– Aircraft of the Fighting Powers Volume V by H. J. Cooper and O. G. Thetford (1944)
– The Secret Years: Flight Testing at Boscombe Down 1939 – 1945 by Tim Mason (1998)
– Hawker Aircraft since 1920 by Francis K. Mason (1991)

SNCM 130 and 137 24-Cylinder Aircraft Engines

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By William Pearce

The history of the SNCM 130 and 137 aircraft engines detailed here has been derived from the research of Sébastien Faurès, which he consolidated into his amazing book, Lorraine-Dietrich.

In mid-1935 the French Service technique de l’aéronautique (STAé / Technical Service of Aeronautics) sought the design of a relatively compact aircraft engine that would produce 600 hp (447 kW) at 13,123 ft (4,000 m), displace around 732 cu in (12 L), and weigh 661 lb (300 kg). The air-cooled engine was intended to power the next generation of light fighter aircraft. Albert Lory was put in charge of the new engine design. Lory had previously worked for Delage automobiles and designed the company’s 15S8 Grand Prix racer that won the Manufacturers’ Championship in 1927. Lory also designed the Delage 12 GVis and 12 CDirs inverted V-12 aircraft engines. Working with the STAé, Lory quickly focused on a 24-cylinder engine of either an X, H, or coupled V-12 configuration.

The SNCM 130 / 137 displayed at the Argenteuil factory in mid-1939. This engine was either a mockup or incomplete, but it was outfitted with the envisioned cowling to make it a complete power package. The radiator would be housed between the ducted spinner and engine. Note the induction scoop positioned above the engine and how the valve train covers form part of the cowling. The holes in the cowling were individual exhaust ports. (image Sébastien Faurès/Lorraine-Dietrich)

Throughout 1936, the STAé engine concept changed quite radically, as did Lory’s design. By late 1937, the liquid-cooled engine was made up of four V-6 engine sections joined by a common crankcase and driving a common crankshaft. Each section would produce 600 hp (447 kW), creating a complete engine capable of 2,400 hp (1,790 kW). Few established engine manufacturers were interested in taking on such an unconventional engine, especially one designed outside of their company. On 31 March 1937, France had nationalized the Société des moteurs et automobiles Lorraine (Lorraine Motor and Automobile Company) and created the state-run Société nationale de construction de moteurs (SNCM / National Society of Engine Construction) in its place, with Claude Bonnier as SNCM’s Managing Director and General Manager. In October 1937, the STAé tasked SNCM to develop the new engine.

The 2,400 hp (1,790 kW) engine design was seen as a little too ambitious, and another redesign occurred. The proposed liquid-cooled, 24-cylinder engine was now formed from three V-8 engine sections on a common crankcase. With six banks of four inline cylinders spaced radially around the crankcase, this engine configuration is often called an inline radial. In addition, the outer points of the six banks formed a hexagon, which qualifies the powerplant as part of the family of rare hexagonal engines. Other hexagonal engines include the Curtiss H-1640 Chieftain, the Wright H-2120, the Junkers Jumo 222, and the Dobrynin series of aircraft engines.

The SNCM engine had an ultimate goal of 1,800 hp (1,342 kW), but it would initially be configured to produce 1,600 hp (1,193 kW). Once this power was obtained, the cylinder’s bore would be increased to achieve an output of 1,800 hp (1,342 kW). The 1,800 hp (1,342 kW) engine was designated SNCM 130. The 1,600 hp (1,193 kW) prototype version, with a reduced bore, was designated SNCM 137 and would be built first. Due to the similarity between the engines and their rather confusing genesis, the SNCM 137 engine is often referred to as the SNCM 130.

Left, French patent 870,367 drawing showing the four Vee engine sections and the valve train for each cylinder bank pair. Note that the induction was illustrated under the camshaft, which was not the case on the engine as built. Right, French patent 870,359 drawings showing two views of the engine’s combustion chamber. Ports e1 and e2 opposite of the inclined valves were for the spark plugs. Port f was for the fuel injector.

The SNCM 137 had a cast aluminum crankcase made of two-pieces and split horizontally (more like diagonally). The two crankcase halves joined around the four-throw crankshaft, which was supported via five main bearings. A connecting rod consisting of one master rod and five articulating rods was mounted to each of the crankshaft’s throws. Six cylinder banks were mounted at 60-degree intervals around the crankcase. Each cylinder bank consisted of a four-cylinder cast aluminum block with forged steel liners and a detachable cast aluminum cylinder head. The cylinder banks were paired together, forming three groups of eight cylinders. Mounted between each cylinder bank pair was an overhead camshaft that was driven by the crankshaft via a series of gears at the back of the engine. In this configuration, one camshaft served two cylinder banks, and the engine had three camshafts. Each of the two upper camshafts drove a fuel distribution pump from their rear. The single lower camshaft drove an oil pump from its rear and a water coolant pump from its front.

Via rockers, the camshaft actuated the single intake valve and single exhaust valve for each cylinder. The valve train between each cylinder pair was concealed by a large, arched valve cover. The valve cover between the lower cylinder banks extended deeper, past the cylinder heads to act as an oil sump. The valves were inclined in the cylinder head, which had a wedge-shaped combustion chamber. On the side of each cylinder opposite from the valves were two spark plugs and a single fuel injector. The spark plugs were fired by two magnetos driven from the rear of the engine. The engine’s compression ratio was 7 to 1.

A centrifugal single-stage, single-speed supercharger made by Szydlowski-Planiol was located at the rear of the engine, and it provided 3.7 psi (.25 bar) of boost. Air entered the rear of the supercharger, was compressed, and was distributed to each cylinder bank via six separate runners. Each runner was connected to an intake manifold that was cast integral with the cylinder bank. The intake manifolds ran along the outer side of the cylinder bank pairs, although a patent drawing shows the intake located under the camshaft between the cylinder pairs. Exhaust was expelled from a port above each cylinder. An engine mount extended between the intake manifolds in the open Vee between the cylinder banks.

Two images of the SNCM 130 / 137 under construction at the former Lorraine factory. On the left, the valve train is apparent between each cylinder bank pair. Note the diagonal split on the end of the crankcase, which illustrates the crankcase’s two halves. On the right is the rear of the completed engine with its supercharger and intake runners. Note the arched valve train covers. (image Sébastien Faurès/Lorraine-Dietrich)

Mounted to the front of the engine was a propeller gear reduction. Different reductions were available between .333 and .667 crankshaft speed. The gear reduction housing was elongated, and an annular radiator was intended to encircle the housing. A shroud enclosed the radiator, and the propeller’s spinner incorporated a duct to deliver air to the radiator. Three blades in the duct acted as a cooling fan to aid the flow of air through the radiator while the aircraft was on the ground. After flowing through the radiator, the air exited via cowl flaps positioned just before the cylinder banks. As designed, the engine and radiator came fully cowled and represented a power package ready for installation. The gear train covers doubled as part of the engine cowling, with removable panels covering the rest of the engine.

The SNCM 137 had a 5.31 in (135 mm) bore and a 5.12 in (130 mm) stroke. The engine’s total displacement was 2,725 cu in (44.66 L). The SNCM 137 was 46 in (1.18 m) in diameter and was 75 in (1.90 m) long. While Lory continued to lead the project and oversee the engine’s construction, former Lorraine engineer Charles Salusse was also involved with the SNCM 137’s design. Salusse was awarded French patents 870,359 for the combustion chamber design and 870,367 for the Vee-type configurations. Both patents were submitted in November 1940, after Lory had left SNCM following the German occupation, and awarded on 12 December 1941. The second patent illustrates the valve train for the paired cylinder banks and shows the intake positioned under the camshaft. One of the example engines has four Vee-section pairs (eight banks), as considered in an earlier STAé design.

The SNCM 137 was constructed at the former Lorraine plant in Argenteuil, near Paris, France. A mockup, or a partially completed engine, was displayed at the Argenteuil plant in mid-1939. The prototype SNCM 137 was completed by early 1940, and tests were quickly started. By the end of March 1940, 2,000 hours had been completed on a valve test rig, 500 hours of single-cylinder testing had been completed, and the SNCM 137 prototype engine had run for 80 hours. The SNCM 137 had achieved 1,638 hp (1,221 kW) at 3,000 rpm at a simulated altitude of 9,843 ft (3,000 m). However, all further development was stopped with the German invasion on 10 May 1940. Most likely, only the single SNCM 137 prototype engine was built. The SNCM 137 engine was captured by German forces and taken to Germany. The final disposition of the engine has not been found, and no parts of the engine are known to exist.

The SNCM 130 would have been the main production version of the engine, but it was not built. The engine had the same architecture as the SNCM 137, but its bore was enlarged .20 in (5 mm) to 5.51 in (140 mm). This gave the SNCM 130 a total displacement of 2,931 cu in (48.03 L), and its anticipated output was 1,800 hp (1,342 kW) at 3,200 rpm. It was expected to maintain this power to 18,045 ft (5,500 m). Most likely, the small increase in displacement would not alter the engine’s diameter or length from that of the SNCM 137. The SNCM 130 had a forecasted weight of 2,094 lb (950 kg). Some sources refer to the SNCM 130 as the 24E Taurus, with ‘24’ representing the number of cylinders, and ‘E’ standing for étoile, meaning ‘star,’ which is often a foreign term used to describe a radial engine.

The SNCM 130 / 137 undergoing tests in early 1940. Note the exhaust stacks protruding directly above each cylinder bank and the robust, three-point engine mount. The water pump is visible, attached to the front of the lower camshaft. (image Sébastien Faurès/Lorraine-Dietrich)

Sources:
– Lorraine-Dietrich by Sébastien Faurès Fustel de Coulanges (2017)
– “La S.N.C.M. construit un moteur de 1600 cv,” Les Ailes (6 July 1939)
– Les Moteurs a Pistons Aeronautiques Francais Tome I by Alfred Bodemer and Robert Laugier (1987)